PSYCHOLOGICAL APPROACH TO LITERATURE(7)

Psychological approach to literature

The Psychological Approach: Freud

Freud’s Theories:

1. Freud emphasized the unconscious aspects of the human psyche
2. Most of the individual’s mental processes are unconscious
3. All human behavior is motivated ultimately by sexuality (However, some of Freud’s own disciples have rejected this, including Jung and Adler)

the summary of all human behaviour is motivated by sexuality is :

The time has arrived for me to attempt to summarize what I have said. We started

out from the aberrations of the sexual instinct in respect of its object and of its aim and

we were faced by the question of whether these arise from an innate disposition or are

acquired as a result of experiences in life. We arrived at an answer to this question from

an understanding, derived from psycho-analytic investigation, of the workings of the

sexual instinct in psychoneurotics, a numerous class of people and one not far removed

from the healthy. We found that in them tendencies to every kind of perversion can be

shown to exist as unconscious forces and betray their presence as factors leading to the

formation of symptoms. It was thus possible to say that neurosis is, as it were, the

negative of perversion. In view of what was now seen to be the wide dissemination of

tendencies to perversion we were driven to the conclusion that a disposition to

perversions is an original and universal disposition of the human sexual instinct and that

normal sexual behaviour is developed out of it as a result of organic changes and

psychical inhibitions occurring in the course of maturation; we hoped to be able to show

the presence of this original disposition in childhood. Among the forces restricting the

direction taken by the sexual instinct we laid emphasis upon shame, disgust, pity and the

structures of morality and authority erected by society. We were thus led to regard any

established aberration from normal sexuality as an instance of developmental inhibition

and infantilism. Though it was necessary to place in the foreground the importance of the

variations in the original disposition, a co-operative and not an opposing relation was to

be assumed as existing between them and the influences of actual life. It appeared, on the

other hand, that since the original disposition is necessarily a complex one, the sexual

instinct itself must be something put together from various factors, and that in the

perversions it falls apart, as it were, into its components. The perversions were thus seen

to be on the one hand inhibitions, and on the other hand dissociations, of normal

development. Both these aspects were brought together in the supposition that the sexual

instinct of adults arises from a

After having explained the preponderance of perverse tendencies in psychoneurotics

by recognizing it as a collateral filling of subsidiary channels when the main current of

the instinctual stream has been blocked by ‘repression’,

of sexual life in childhood. We found it a regrettable thing that the existence of the sexual

instinct in childhood has been denied and that the sexual manifestations not infrequently

to be observed in children have been described as irregularities. It seemed to us on the

contrary that children bring germs of sexual activity with them into the world, that they

already enjoy sexual satisfaction when they begin to take nourishment and that they

persistently seek to repeat the experience in the familiar activity of ‘thumb-sucking’. The

sexual activity of children, however, does not, it appeared, develop pan passu with their

other functions, but, after a short period of efflorescence from the ages of two to five,

combination of a number of impulses of childhood into a unity, an impulsion with a single aim.1 we proceeded to a consideration2

enters upon the so-called period of latency. During that period the production of sexual

excitation is not by any means stopped but continues and produces a store of energy

which is employed to a great extent for purposes other than sexual—namely, on the one

hand in contributing the sexual components to social feelings and on the other hand

(through repression and reaction-forming) in building up the subsequently developed

barriers against sexuality. On this view, the forces destined to retain the sexual instinct

upon certain lines are built up in childhood chiefly at the cost of perverse sexual impulses

and with the assistance of education. A certain portion of the infantile sexual impulses

would seem to evade these uses and succeed in expressing itself as sexual activity. We

next found that sexual excitation in children springs from a multiplicity of forces.

Sigmund Freud

Summary :

PSYCHOLOGICAL APPROACH TO LITERATURE(6)

approach to literature

The Psychological Approach: Freud

Aim of Psychological Approach:

Provide many profound clues toward solving a work’s thematic and symbolic mysteries


Abuses and Misunderstandings of the Psychological Approach:

In the general sense of the word, nothing new about psychological approach. Used as early as the 4th century by Aristotle.
During the twentieth century, psychological criticism has come to be associated with the psychoanalytical theories of Sigmund Freud and his followers. This association has resulted in most of the abuses and misunderstandings of this approach.
Abuses results from an excess of enthusiasm, which has manifested several ways:
Advocates push their critical theses to hard, forcing the psychoanalytical theory at expense of other considerations
The literary criticism of the psychoanalytical extremists degenerated into a special occultism with its own mystique and jargon used specifically for the in-group.
Results in widespread mistrust of the psychological approach in analyzing literature

PSYCHOLOGICAL APPROACH TO LITERATURE(5)

Psychological approach to literature

The Psychological Approach: Freud

Applications of Frued’s theories


1) Symbolism — most images interpreted in terms of sexuality

a) concave images (ponds, flowers, cups, vases, caves, hollows, tunnels)

—female or womb symbols

b) long (erect) images (towers, snakes, knives, swords, trees, poles, sky scrapers, missiles)

— male or phallic symbols

c) activities (dancing riding, flying) symbols of sexual pleasure.

· Of ten pushed too far — Little Red Riding Hood

PSYCHOLOGICAL APPROACH TO LITERATURE(4)

Psychological approach to literature

The Psychological Approach: Freud

Applications of Frued’s theories



2) Child Psychology

infant and childhood are formative years a period of intense sexual development and awareness.

First five years children pass through several phases in erotic development.

1) Oral 2) Anal 3) Genital

Frustration in the gratification of any of these: eating, elimination, or reproduction may result in an adult personality that is warped.

If a child’s development is arrested in any one of these phases, he may develop a fixation

 

Fixation:

1. Oral — pre—mature weaning may result in cigarette smoking

2. Anal — overly strict toilet training — fastidious, fussy

3. Genital — close attachment to parent — may develop either an Oedipus or Electra Complex.

PSYCHOLOGICAL APPROACH TO LITERATURE(3)

The Psychological Approach: Freud

Examples of the Psychological Approach in practice:

The Oedipus Complex in Hamlet (Oedipus Complex is when a boy is sexually attracted to his mother)
Rebellion against the father in Huckleberry Finn
Id versus Superego in the short story “Young Goodman Brown”
The consequences of sexual repression in The Turn of the Screw
Love and Death in the short story “Sick Rose”
Sexual Imagery in the poem “To His Coy Mistress” (Most often use of sexual imagery is finding phallic and yonic symbols)
Morality over the pleasure principle in the short story “Everyday Use”

PSYCHOLOGICAL APPROACH TO LITERATURE(2)

uses psychoanalytic theories, especially those of Freud and Jacques Lacan, to understand more fully the text, the reader, and the writer. The basis of this approach is the idea of the existence of a human consciousness – those impulses, desires, and feelings about which a person is unaware but which influence emotions or behavior. Critics use psychological approaches to explore the motivations of characters and the symbolic meanings of events, while biographers speculate about a writer’s own motivations – conscious or unconscious – in a literary work.

Queer theory, or gender studies

, is a relatively recent and evolving school of criticism, which questions and problematizes the issues of gender identity and sexual orientation in literary texts. Queer theory overlaps in many respects with feminist theory in its aims and goals, being at once political and practical. To many queer theorists, gender is not a fixed identity that shapes actions and thoughts, but rather a "role" that is "performed." It also challenges the notion that there is such a thing as "normal," because that assumes the existence of a category for "deviant." Queer theorists study and challenge the idea that these categories exist at all, but particularly in terms of sexual activities and identities. Reader-response criticism removes the focus from the text and places it on the reader instead, by attempting to describe what goes on in the reader’s mind during the reading of a text. Reader-response critics are not interested in a "correct" interpretation of a text or what the author intended. They are interested in the reader’s individual experience with a text. Thus, there is no single definitive reading of a text, because the reader is creating, as opposed to discovering, absolute meanings in texts. This approach is not a rationale for bizarre meanings or mistaken ones, but an exploration of the plurality of texts. This kind of strategy calls attention to how we read and what influences our readings, and what that reveals about ourselves

Psychological criticism

PSYCHOLOGICAL APPROACH TO LITERATURE

During the twentieth century there has been a shift away from the “who done it “genre to the “why did he do it” Major writers have included Hermann Hess., Franz Kafka, James Joyce and Virginia Woolf.

In literary criticism some critics have abandoned the formalistic/aesthetic approach because of their limitations and inadequacies in coming to terms with the major concerns of modern literature. Rather than being “Art for Arts sake”, modern literature tends to be more exploratory and didactic. The emphasis is more on character and motivation than on form and structure.

The psychological approach to literary criticism is very controversial and is easily  abused.

Some critics argue that it was already used by Aristotle in his Poetics in the 4 th century BC,  when he defined tragedy as combining the emotions of pity and terror to produce “catharsis”.. These critics argue that this is merely a sub—conscious emotional response to literature.

 

FREUDIAN THEORIES

1.    Core theory — the unconscious aspects of the human psyche.  

Most of our actions (mental processes) are motivated by psychic forces over which we have little control.

·        Mind is like an iceberg — its greatest weight and density lies below the surface.

Two kinds of unconsciousness

a) pre—conscious — latent not directly aware of something, however with effort. it can be retrieved

b) unconcious — something very difficult to revivte mocceesfully blocked or repressed. Comes out in perverse ways.

Ex Novel/Movie — “Marnie

.2. Second theory (now rejected by most psychologists including Carl Jung, his disciple).

“All human behaviour is ultimately motivated  by sexuality.”

3. Freud’s Three Psychic Zones

1. Id — reservoir of libido

— primary source of all psychic energy

— functions to fulfil the primordial life principle

— our basic drives (S)

— pleasure principle

— no rational order / organisation/ will

— impulse to obtain gratification of instinctual needs

no regard for social conventions — asocial

— no values — good/evil amorphous/ amoral

— source of all aggression desires

— lawless, self—destructive

— pre—Freudians called it the “devil” in man

2. Ego

regulating agency to curb the Id

— protects the individual and society

— rational, reasoning, logical

— partially conscious

— aware of reality

3.. Super Ego

—      Largely unconscious

—      moral censoring agent

—      conscience, self—image, pride

—      moral restrictions or repression of Id.

—      blocks off or represses those drives which society regards as unacceptable.. operates on rewards and punishments

—      an overactive S.E. creates unconscious guilt (complex).

Healthy person has a well balanced Pyche, while an imbalance of any one force causes mental stress — neurosis  - today of called a syndrome or a disorder.

Id       pleasure principle  animals

Ego    reality mankind

Super Ego   morality       “        angels

Applications of Frued’s theories

1) Symbolism — most images interpreted in terms of sexuality

a) concave images (ponds, flowers, cups, vases, caves, hollows, tunnels)

—female or womb symbols

b) long  (erect) images (towers, snakes, knives, swords, trees, poles, sky scrapers, missiles)

— male or phallic symbols

c) activities (dancing riding, flying) symbols of sexual pleasure.

·        Of ten pushed too far — Little Red Riding Hood

2)  Child Psychology

infant and childhood are formative years a period of intense sexual development and awareness.

First five years children pass through several phases in erotic development.

1)       Oral   2) Anal         3) Genital

Frustration in the gratification of any of these: eating, elimination, or reproduction may result in an adult personality that is warped.

If a child’s development is arrested in any one of these phases, he may develop a “fixation”.

Fixation:

1.       Oral — pre—mature weaning    may result in cigarette smoking

2.       Anal — overly strict toilet training — fastidious, fussy

3.       Genital — close attachment to parent — may develop either  an Oedipus or Electra Complex.

 

Psychological  Defence Mechanisms

Our ego is very delicate and fragile and so we often use ways and means to

try to protect it.  In the face of confusion, disappointment, failure, conflict and frustration, our psyche needs help to cope. Without “psychological crutches” we become stressed or anxious. We can have  three reactions to Anxiety or stress:

1) Attack problem and develop solutions.

2) Ignore the problem, hope it will go away.

3) Def end ourselves (our ego, self esteem, image)

Psychological Mechanisms,

I   Substitution   -  Compensating

·        Overdoing one thing to cover up deficiencies in other areas.

·        conversationalist — good talker — not a doer.

I I.  Repression   - Blocking

·        Try to forget failures or unfortunate incident.

·        we forget to perform unpleasant duties.

I I I    RATIONALISATION  -  Justifications

·        we substitute a “good reason” for an action rather than the real one.

·        wishful thinking — not reasoning

IV.   REGRESSION   - Reverting to former states.

·        Reverting to childish behaviour or habits

·        often covers up fact that we can not cope with problem.

V.   SUBLIMATION

·        Basic drives become expressed in socially accepted forms.

·        hostility expressed in competitive sports.

·        a blood thirsty individual becomes a butcher.

VI.  - IDENTIFICATION

·        Role—playing — we take on characteristics of a person we admire. a Hero—worship or modelling (apeing)

VII.  INSULATION

·        Protective Shell

·        being aloof, distant, unconcerned, cold, “don’t  care”

·        self-sufficient,  detached  “cool”.

VIII.  SCAPEGOATING     -  Justification

·        Blaming our own faults, deficiencies, inadequacies on others.

IX.      INTELLECTUALISATION

·        Trying to remain objective, analytical, untouched in an emotionally threatening event.

X.       MALINGERING    -  A Psycho-somatic disorder

·        Adjusting through injury.

·        Taking to your bed

·        Having a headache

·        Feeling sick to the stomach

XI.         AGGRESSION  -

 Reacting rather than responding to a situation.

·        You become overwhelmed by frustration and a sense of powerlessness or impotence to the extent that you react in a violent, vindictive and destructive manner.

Merits of Psychological Approach:

In the right hands, this approach can be useful in understanding motivation and causality.  Psychoanalysis has helped us to understand human behaviour and many writers have explored this field to great advantage.

Freud’s contribution to the formative and impressionable childhood years has also assisted us in providing conditions to maximise children’s potential.

Limitations of Psychological Approach:

While beneficial, we have to realise that Psychoanalysis alone will not lead to a full understanding of a work of art.  There are many other valid interpretations.

TRANSLATION THEORY(7)

THE (C/OVERT) ROLE OF TRANSLATOR IN TOURY’S DESCRIPTIVE APPROACH TO THE STUDY AND PRACTICE OF TRANSLATION

In 1980, Israeli translation scholar Gideon Toury wrote a book entitled In Search of a Theory of Translation, which apparently launched new debates within the realm of the newly emerging discipline of Translation Studies. The beginning of the eighties, the publication year of Toury’s book, coincides with a period when Translation Studies started to be regarded as an autonomous discipline as well. The beginning of the 1980s was also a time when not only the necessities of founding a particular discipline, but also the presence/s of disciplines were seriously being questioned thanks to the rise of the so-called theories and arguments of post-modernism. The ultimate need for a scientific ground and a scientific approach to build a given discipline was tantamount to found a relevant theory of the study and practice of translation. Toury’s main concern was to establish a theory of translation which could fulfil this need of a newly emerging discipline. In this respect, the title of Toury’s book makes sense and justifies most of the controversies (i.e. tertium comparationis) of his study to a certain degree. Furthermore, Toury was indeed in search of a theory of translation and regarded his study as an initial step taken towards the establishment of this goal. Nevertheless, as far as the circumstances of his time regarding the existence of a particular discipline are taken into consideration, Toury’s endeavour becomes questionable to some extent. Yet, by his approach Toury manages to ignite the debates which would strip the act of translation from the everlasting questions of “equivalence”, “fidelity”, “good vs. bad translation”, “faithfulness”, hence paved the way for interdisciplinary studies of translation and by this prominent quality, in a way Toury overcomes the questionable aspect of his attempt. In this sense, Toury’s initial step can also be regarded as a significant move which indicates the scholar’s awareness of the circumstances of the period in which he has undertaken his study.

In due time, Toury –with the purpose of making his arguments clear, and respond to the criticisms raised against his theory– published his articles which he has written after the publication of In Search of a Theory of Translation in a book entitled Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond in 1995. The notion of norms (Toury 1995: 53-64), special focus on the idea of pseudo translations (ibid: 40-52), the criteria of “adequacy” and “acceptability” (ibid: 56-57) not to mention the postulate of assumed translations (ibid: 31-39), are some of the basic concepts of the scholar’s approach which can become the most efficient tools in the hands of a researcher interested in studying translations in a descriptive way. Among these concepts, particularly the notion of norms merits further attention due to the way it differs from the previous approaches (i.e. source-oriented, linguistic based, and the like) to the study and practice of translation. Unlike the prior translation scholars, Toury regards translations “as facts of the culture which hosts them” (ibid: 24) and indicates that a given translation is a socio-cultural fact which has to be studied by taking into consideration the constraints of the target culture. Toury regards these (social) constraints as norms, or in other words objects to be studied in his descriptive approach.

It is at this point, where the role of translator comes into play in Toury’s descriptive approach. Toury distinguishes three types of norms during the translation process: Preliminary norms, initial norms, operational norms being further subdivided into matricial norms and textual-linguistic norms (ibid: 58-60). Even though all these characteristics of the concept of norms may support the idea of Toury’s giving priority to the translator in terms of the choices s/he can make during the course of a given translation, there are some fundamental aspects which Toury does not take into account, or may seem to not take into account.

Naturally, one of the important phases of a given translation process with respect to the choices made by the translator to be observed is the black box, the mind of the translator in which the hermeneutical circle, that is to say, the act of interpreting, the act of approaching, and the act of establishing a dialectial relationship with a text suggests itself as the core of a given translation process. A brief glance at Toury’s norms, on the other hand, indicates that this crucial aspect is neglected to a certain extent and warded off by merely mentioning it with phrases like “the basic choices to be selected” and so forth (cf. ibid). However, these basic choices also bring into focus the role of translator’s style in the translation process (cf. Boase-Beier: 2006 5-6). By simply pointing out these choices in his theoretical framework and not dwelling upon them in detail, Toury dismisses the style of translator that can mould –either in a positive or a negative way– a translation to some degree. One may argue though, for Toury the hermeneutical process along with the translator’s style within a given translation process is a fact to be studied in the light of the detailed analysis of (translation) norms; nonetheless, the way Toury develops his claims leaves no room for an analysis of the actual process that takes place in the mind of the translator.

Moreover, a quick look at the picture proposed by Toury from a broader perspective in terms of socio-cultural dynamics of a given “(target!)” society, signifies the lack of the ideological concerns to be taken into consideration during the course of building a theoretical framework deriving from the ideas pertaining to sociology. Just like any member of a society, the translator is also an individual of a social community. S/he can adhere himself to the norms of a particular ideology which in the long run might affect his or her translation and to a certain extent and as well as might make the target text produced to function as an ideological tool in terms of imposing particular set of thoughts to the other members of the society. By being negligent of the ideological concerns of a society, Toury reduces the constraints on the shoulders of translators, thus in a sense disregards the varying strata of the societies.

To sum up, Gideon Toury, being one of the harbingers of the “cultural turn” in Translation Studies, has made a significant contribution to the evolution of the discipline in many respects. Be that as it may, Toury’s approach to the study and practice of translation neglects the human factor during the translation process to some degree as stated above. Yet, by the theoretical framework the scholar proposes, can become an effective tool in the hands of a researcher which might undertake a descriptive study of translation practices. Still, as far as the theoretical aspect of Toury’s approach is concerned, the problematic parts in terms of the notion of hermeneutics along with the ideological concerns can be improved by the interdisciplinary studies.

TRANSLATION THEORY(6)

The Shades of Babel in Walter Benjamin’s “The Task of the Translator”

A brief glance at the very word language from a contemporary perspective indicates a certain state of disarray. On the one hand, there is the certain hegemony of the English language all around the world, and on the other, there are languages which strive to preserve their own identities under the dominance of one particular language. Yet, when the notion of that “one particular language” is traced through mythology –or to put it in more clear terms, through the myth of Babel– one can find the signs of the so-called curse imposed upon mankind: “Some awful error was committed, an accidental release of linguistic chaos, in the mode of Pandora’s box. Or, more commonly, man’s language condition, the incommunicados that so absurdly divide him are a punishment. A lunatic tower was launched at the stars; Titans savaged one another and of their broken bones came the splinters of isolated speech; eavesdropping, like Tantalus, on the gossip of the gods, mortal man was struck moronic and lost all remembrance of his native, universal parlance” (Steiner 1977: 57). The universal parlance mentioned in George Steiner’s retelling of the Babel myth connotes the notion of pure language which the prominent thinker of the twentieth century Walter Benjamin dwells upon in his essay entitled “The Task of the Translator”.

Even though the title of Benjamin’s piece reads as “The Task of the Translator”, the essay itself is chiefly focused on the notion of pure language, translatability of an artistic work, the literal translation of syntax, re-translations; Benjamin refers to the “task” of the translator barely throughout his study (cf. 2000: 15-23). Therefore, Benjamin’s “The Task of the Translator”, achieves the status of a philosophical writing on language rather than one on translation. Still, when Benjamin’s essay is taken into consideration from the vantage point of contemporary translation theories, one can see how some of the crucial argument points of (post)colonial approaches to the study and practice of translation, such as keeping the foreigness of the ST, holding back from communication, coming to terms with the foreigness of the languages, and so forth have their very roots in Benjamin’s essay which is heavily influenced by Holderlin’s translations from Sophocles and Goethe’s notes on Western-Eastern Divan (cf. Steiner 1977: 63).

Indeed, Benjamin is in search for the pure language, that is to say, mankind’s universal parlance. In this journey, Benjamin regards translation as the ultimate way of reaching the pure language. According to Douglas Robinson, in Benjamin’s essay, “the source language has taken pure language prisoner, put her under a spell, and only the translation with the help of the intentions in both the source and the target languages, can free her” (1996: 201). Benjamin’s approach to translation takes a different turn when it is re-evaluated from the “taking the original captive” metaphor since from that standpoint it becomes feasible to comprehend the hidden “task” of the translator embodied in Benjamin’s work. In this metaphor, “the translator, rather than letting himself be ‘bound’ or chained by the original author through literal or ‘slavish’ or ‘servile’ translation, seizes the control of the text and its meaning, and thus of the original author and source culture, and enslaves them” (Robinson 1997: 55-56). Nevertheless in Benjamin’s essay, this metaphor works the other way around and becomes an image metaphor (Boase-Beier 2006: 97) in which pure language is sought. In the light of these remarks, Benjamin’s opinions on re-translations, continuous changes in the languages, and the like can be considered as an endless search for pure language. For Benjamin, translation is a higher form of life in which a new process takes place with the purpose bringing something new to the realm of languages.

All in all, Walter Benjamin’s philosophical essay on language becomes one of the key texts from the point of view of contemporary translation theories. However, when the entire work is taken into consideration in terms of the Babel myth, one wonders why Walter Benjamin does not mention it at all in his essay. When “The Task of the Translator” is re-thought in the light of the Babel myth, this remarkable essay would surely lead one to another philosophical dimension. Furthermore, such a reading would allow the chance for a student of translation to analyze one of the key works of translation, namely George Steiner’s After Babel in which Steiner sheds light on the study and practice of translation from the perspective of philosophical thought.

TRANSLATION THEORY(5)

Eternal Struggle for the Control of Meaning

Despite the recent approaches developed within the realm of Translation Studies, the traditional way of regarding translator as a humble servant between the ST and the TT still has certain dominance in a given society. Any kind of interference made by the translator –regardless of its purpose– is considered as an evil crime committed during the translation process. However, in certain phases of a given translation project, the text itself demands interference from its very reader, that is to say the translator, to get hold of the meaning inherent in it. Seen from this perspective, one can see how the power relationships peculiar to the study and practice of translation also takes place within the literary text itself. These dialectics of power, in fact, can be the essential key points of the plot of a given literary text.

In her article entitled “Writing, Interpreting, and the Power Struggle for the Control of Meaning: Scenes from Kafka, Borges and Kosztolányi”, Rosemary Arrojo dwells upon the power struggle in the literary texts. In her study, Arrojo also emphasizes how authors like Kafka and Borges build their fictional works on that particular notion: the power struggle. According to the scholar, “Nietzsche explores the connection between creation and power more fully, far beyond the limits of fiction writing, particularly through his concept of the ‘will to power’, generally described as ‘the creative and procreative impulse of life’” (2002: 63). Whereas in the works of Kafka and Borges the fictional characters, such as an architect or a detective strive for the control of the meaning, in Kosztolányi’s work the fictional character is a translator. In Kosztolányi’s work, “The Kleptomaniac Translator”, the main character of the short story creates a better work than the ST. Nevertheless, the translator’s approach was not accepted by the editors and it was found rather manipulative.

The bottom line here is, by analysing a fictional work as such Rosemary Arrojo brings into focus the contemporary understanding of translation in a given country. The fact that there is a huge gap lies between the academic world and the practical field of translation is a universal one, and most of the time the translator’s theoretical knowledge, decisions taken in line with this knowledge is not taken into consideration to a certain extent. In this respect, Arrojo’s article can be regarded as a certain work in which the ethics of translation is questioned from the vantage point of the translator.

On the whole, Rosemary Arrojo’s study is a fruitful one which sheds light on the notion of the power struggle within a given literary text. The scholar’s selection of the influential authors of the twentieth century makes sense to a certain degree as well. However, by doing so, Arrojo seems to be neglecting Brazilian (female) authors to some degree. For instance, the application of the labyrinth image through Arrojo analyzes Kafka’s short story “The Burrow”, on Clarice Lispector’s short story entitled “Looking for Some Dignity” (cf. 2003: 129-137, esp. 129-133), in which the heroine Mrs. Xavier tries to reach her destination through the labyrinths of Maracana Stadium, would surely help Arrojo to bring a new approach to the writings of Clarice Lispector in the English language. Furthermore, such an analysis to the work of Lispector would emancipate the Brazilian author from the hegemony of the French scholar Hélène Cixous whom Arrojo criticizes heavily in her article “Interpretation as Possessive Love: Hélène Cixous, Clarice Lispector and the Ambivalence of Fidelity” (1999: 141-161).

TRANSLATION THEORY(4)

Translation as a communication process

by Frédéric Houbert

The translator, before being a “writer” as such, is primarily a “message conveyor.” In most cases, translation is to be understood as the process whereby a message expressed in a specific source language is linguistically transformed in order to be understood by readers of the target language. Therefore, no particular adapting work is usually required from the translator, whose work essentially consists of conveying the meaning expressed by the original writer.
    Everyone knows, for instance, that legal translation leaves little room for adaptation and rewriting. Similarly, when it comes to translating insurance contracts, style-related concerns are not paramount to the translating process; what the end reader needs is a translated text that is faithful to the source text in meaning, regardless of stylistic prowess from the translator.
    Yet, in an number of cases, the translator faces texts which are to be used within a process of “active communication” and the impact of which often depends on the very wording of the original text. In these specific cases, the translator sometimes finds it necessary to reconsider the original wording in order to both better understand the source text (this also sometimes occurs in plain technical texts) and be able to render it in the target language. This is the moment when the translator becomes an active link in the communication chain, the moment when his communication skills are called upon to enhance the effect of the original message.
    The translation process here becomes twofold: firstly, the translator needs to detect potential discrepancies and flaws in the original text and understand the meaning they intend to convey. To do this, the translator often needs to contact the writer of the text to be translated (or any other person who is familiar with the contents of the text) in order to clarify the ambiguities he has come across. Secondly, once this first part of the work is over, the translator will undo the syntactic structure of the original text and then formulate the corresponding message in the target language, thus giving the original text added value in terms of both wording and impact. It is important to stress that this work will always be carried out in cooperation with the original writer, so that the translator can make sure the translated message corresponds to the meaning the writer originally intended to convey; remember, the translator is essentially a message conveyor, not an author.
    In order to give an example of this value-added part of the translator’s work, let us take the following excerpt, taken from a speech to be delivered by a local official working for a French “Mairie” (i.e., the local authority managing public services in French towns and cities) on the occasion of a visit from British partners as part of a twinning agreement (I could also have chosen an excerpt from a translated advertisement, for instance, in which the rewriting work of the translator is also of the essence). This translating assignment meant more than just converting information from one language into another: it involved paying particular attention to the point of view of the translation user (in this case, the listener speaking the target language), in addition to fully understanding the ideas to be transmitted. This is obviously accounted for by the fact that a speech, just as any other direct communication text, includes an extra dimension as compared to usual informative texts: this dimension could be referred to as the “listener-oriented” aspect of a text. Obviously, the text of a speech not only has a written dimension, a quality shared by all other texts whatever the field, but also an oral dimension. This double dimension obviously needs to be taken into account by the translator in his work: more than is the case with other types of texts, the viewpoint of the reader/listener should be kept in mind at all times.
    Let us take an excerpt from the speech in order to better understand the above-described process. One section of the text reads: “Je me dis qu’il est bon aussi de formaliser de temps en temps ces rencontres pour créer une mémoire collective de nos correspondances.” A rough translation in English would give the following result: “I feel it is useful from time to time to give these meetings formal expression in order to create a collective memory of our correspondence.” The latter part of this sentence sounds rather funny and the reader/listener will probably find it difficult to see what it means exactly. This is why I thought the source text needed a couple of clarifications; for one thing, the French “mémoire collective” has a historical dimension to it which I felt was inappropriate in a text meant to convey a positive, future-oriented message. In the mind of most French people, the collocative “mémoire collective” brings about images of the two world wars and of other vivid French historical events such as “Mai 68,” which as you probably know was a period of turmoil marked mainly by students’ demonstrations. Secondly, the French term “correspondances” is inadequately used (after consulting the author of the text, I found that it meant “all of the mutual achievements of the twinning partners since the signing of their agreement”). In short, the overall notion given by the French text is rather blurred, past-oriented, and the author fails to convey his ideas in a persuasive way.
    After having analyzed these two inaccuracies with the help of the author, I came up with the following translation: “I feel it is useful from time to time to give these meetings formal expression in order to put on record our mutual achievements for better future cooperation.” This adapted translation is much more suitable for two essential reasons: it clarifies the original message, and consequently gives it greater power while also providing it with a positive dimension. I deliberately chose to add “for better future cooperation” in order to reinforce the cogency of the message, which the French original obviously failed to convey.
    By making this choice, I decided to take an active part in the communication process by giving the message an extra dimension which it lacked in the original text: I simply chose to consider my work as a creative process in the best interest of the original message.
    Let us look into another example taken from the same text. The first line of the last paragraph begins with the following words: “Nous souhaitons ce renforcement des échanges...,” i.e., literally, “We support this intensifying of exchanges....” When I first read this, I thought, well, who wouldn’t support a positive, fruitful exchange process? In order to avoid obtaining the same awkwardness in English, I therefore chose to stress the idea of support by inserting the adverb “fully,” which again causes the overall impact of the message to be enhanced. The edited translation finally read as follows: “We fully support the idea whereby exchanges should be intensified....”
    As these two examples show, the work of the translator often involves a great deal of creativity, as well as a wide range of communication skills. This aspect of translation was also the subject of an article by Steve Dyson which appeared in Traduire (2/96), the journal of the Société Française des Traducteurs (French Society of Translators). Dyson calls this creative process “interlingual copywriting” and defines it as “the necessity, where appropriate, to give effective communication priority over fidelity to the original.”
    Professional translators, while giving the above issues a serious thought, should however never forget that most texts to be translated do not require “adaptation” or “reader-oriented rewriting”; a full understanding of the source text and accurate rendering in the target language usually prove enough to give the client satisfaction and make the task of the translator an intellectually gratifying one. As with all other communication skills, creativity is best appreciated and yields the best result when used appropriately.

TRANSLATION THEORY(3)

A METHODOLOGY FOR TRANSLATION

Translated by Juan C.Sager and M.-J.Hamel

A

can be condensed to just seven, each one corresponding to a higher degree of

complexity. In practice, they may be used either on their own or combined with one

or more of the others.

T FIRST THE different methods or procedures seem to be countless, but they

Direct and oblique translation

Generally speaking, translators can choose from two methods of translating, namely

direct, or literal translation and oblique translation. In some translation tasks it

may be possible to transpose the source language message element by element into

the target language, because it is based on either (i) parallel categories, in which

case we can speak of structural parallelism, or (ii) on parallel concepts, which are

the result of metalinguistic parallelisms. But translators may also notice gaps, or

“lacunae”, in the target language (TL) which must be filled by corresponding

elements, so that the overall impression is the same for the two messages.

It may, however, also happen that, because of structural or metalinguistic

differences, certain stylistic effects cannot be transposed into the TL without

upsetting the syntactic order, or even the lexis. In this case it is understood that

more complex methods have to be used which at first may look unusual but

which nevertheless can permit translators a strict control over the reliability of

their work: these procedures are called oblique translation methods. In the

listing which follows, the first three procedures are direct and the others are

oblique.

1958/1995

A METHODOLOGY FOR TRANSLATION 85

Procedure 1: Borrowing

To overcome a lacuna, usually a metalinguistic one (e.g. a new technical process,

an unknown concept), borrowing is the simplest of all translation methods. It

would not even merit discussion in this context if translators did not occasionally

need to use it in order to create a stylistic effect. For instance, in order to introduce

the flavour of the source langugae (SL) culture into a translation, foreign terms

may be used, e.g. such Russian words as “roubles”, “datchas” and “aparatchik”,

“dollars” and “party” from American English, Mexican Spanish food names

“tequila” and “tortillas”, and so on. In a story with a typical English setting, an

expression such as “the coroner spoke” is probably better translated into French

by borrowing the English term “coroner”, rather than trying to find a more or

less satisfying equivalent title from amongst the French magistrature, e.g.:

coroner prit la parole”

Some well-established, mainly older borrowings are so widely used that they are

no longer considered as such and have become a part of the respective TL lexicon.

Some examples of French borrowings from other languages are

“redingote”, “paquebot”, “acajou”,

“carburetor”, “hangar”, “chic” and expressions like “déjà vu”, “enfant terrible”

and “rendez-vous” are no longer considered to be borrowings. Translators are

particularly interested in the newer borrowings, even personal ones. It must be

remembered that many borrowings enter a language through translation, just like

semantic borrowings or faux amis, whose pitfalls translators must carefully avoid.

The decision to borrow a SL word or expression for introducing an element of

local colour is a matter of style and consequently of the message.

“Le.“alcool”,etc. In English such words as “menu”,

Procedure 2: Caique

A calque is a special kind of borrowing whereby a language borrows an expression

form of another, but then translates literally each of its elements. The result is either

i a lexical caique, as in the first example, below, i.e. a caique which respects

the syntactic structure of the TL, whilst introducing a new mode of

expression; or

ii a structural caique, as in the second example, below, which introduces a new

construction into the language, e.g.:

English-French caique

Compliments of the Season! Compliments de la saison!

Science-fiction Science-fiction

As with borrowings, there are many fixed caiques which, after a period of time,

become an integral part of the language. These too, like borrowings, may have

undergone a semantic change, turning them into faux amis. Translators are more

interested in new caiques which can serve to fill a lacuna, without having to use an

86 JEAN-PAUL VINAY AND JEAN DARBELNET

actual borrowing (cf.

German language). In such cases it may be preferable to create a new lexical form

using Greek or Latin roots or use conversion (cf.

This would avoid awkward caiques, such as:

“économiquement faible”, a French calque taken from the“l’hypostase”; Bally 1944:257 ff.).

Procedure 3: Literal translation

Literal, or word for word, translation is the direct transfer of a SL text into a

grammatically and idiomatically appropriate TL text in which the translators’ task

is limited to observing the adherence to the linguistic servitudes of the TL.

In principle, a literal translation is a unique solution which is reversible and complete

in itself. It is most common when translating between two languages of the same

family (e.g. between French and Italian), and even more so when they also share

the same culture. If literal translations arise between French and English, it is

because common metalinguistic concepts also reveal physical coexistence, i.e.

English source

occupational therapy

Bank for Commerce and Development

the four great powers

The French Premier

Matrimony is a fifty–fifty association.

the man in the street

[instead of “l’homme de la rue”

or “le Français moyen”]

fellow-traveller

Most major decisions regarding the

Near-East were taken when

Churchill pretended that the chair

occupied by France on the international

scene was empty.

[instead of: “la place” or “le

fauteuil”]

French calque

thérapie occupationnelle

Banque pour le Commerce et le

Développement

les quatre Grands

le Premier Français

Le mariage est une association à

cinquante—cinquante.

(

l’homme dans la rue

(

compagnon de route

(

La plupart des grandes décisions sur

le Proche-Orient ont été prises à un

moment où Sir Winston Churchill

affectait de considérer comme

“vide” la “chaise” de la France sur la

scène internationale.

(

J’ai laissé mes lunettes sur la table en

bas.

Où êtes-vous?

Ce train arrive à la gare Centrale à

10 heures.

I left my spectacles on the table

downstairs.

Where are you?

This train arrives at Union Station

at ten.

Les Nouvelles Littéraires, October 1955)Revue des Deux Mondes, May 1955)Le Monde, March 1956)Le Monde, March 1956)

A METHODOLOGY FOR TRANSLATION 87

periods of bilingualism, with the conscious or unconscious imitation which attaches

to a certain intellectual or political prestige, and such like. They can also be justified

by a certain convergence of thought and sometimes of structure, which are certainly

present among the European languages (cf. the creation of the definite article, the

concepts of culture and civilization), and which have motivated interesting research

in General Semantics.

In the preceding methods, translation does not involve any special stylistic

procedures. If this were always the case then our present study would lack

justification and translation would lack an intellectual challenge since it would be

reduced to an unambiguous transfer from SL to TL. The exploration of the possibility

of translating scientific texts by machine, as proposed by the many research groups

in universities and industry in all major countries, is largely based on the existence

of parallel passages in SL and TL texts, corresponding to parallel thought processes

which, as would be expected, are particularly frequent in the documentation

required in science and technology. The suitability of such texts for automatic

translation was recognised as early as 1955 by Locke and Booth. (For current

assessments of the scope of applications of machine translation see Hutchins and

Somers 1992, Sager 1994.)

If, after trying the first three procedures, translators regard a literal translation

unacceptable, they must turn to the methods of oblique translation. By unacceptable

we mean that the message, when translated literally

i gives another meaning, or

ii has no meaning, or

iii is structurally impossible, or

iv does not have a corresponding expression within the metalinguistic experience

of the TL, or

v has a corresponding expression, but not within the same register.

To clarify these ideas, consider the following examples:

While we can translate the first sentence literally, this is impossible for the second,

unless we wish to do so for an expressive reason (e.g. in order to characterise an

Englishman who does not speak very good conversational French). The first example

pair is less specific, since

renders the demonstration invalid.

If translators offer something similar to the second example, above, e.g.:

portait comme un charme”,

of the two messages, something their “neutral” position outside both the TL and the

SL enables them to do. Equivalence of messages ultimately relies upon an identity

of situations, and it is this alone that allows us to state that the TL may retain

certain characteristics of reality that are unknown to the SL.

If there were conceptual dictionaries with bilingual signifiers, translators would

He looked at the map

He looked the picture of health.

Il regarda la carte.

Il paraissait l’image de la santé.

Il avait l’air en pleine forme.

“carte” is less specific than “map”. But this in no way“Il sethis indicates that they have aimed at an equivalence

88 JEAN-PAUL VINAY AND JEAN DARBELNET

only need to look up the appropriate translation under the entry corresponding to

the situation identified by the SL message. But such dictionaries do not exist and

therefore translators start off with words or units of translation, to which they apply

particular procedures with the intention of conveying the desired message. Since

the positioning of a word within an utterance has an effect on its meaning, it may

well arise that the solution results in a grouping of words that is so far from the

original starting point that no dictionary could give it. Given the infinite number of

combinations of signifier s alone, it is understandable that dictionaries cannot

provide translators with ready-made solutions to all their problems. Only translators

can be aware of the totality of the message, which determines their decisions. In the

final analysis, it is the message alone, a reflection of the situation, that allows us to

judge whether two texts are adequate alternatives.

Procedure 4: Transposition

The method called transposition involves replacing one word class with another

without changing the meaning of the message. Beside being a special translation

procedure, transposition can also be applied within a language. For example:

annoncé qu’il reviendrait”,

with a noun, thus:

which we call the base expression, we refer to the second one as the transposed

expression. In translation there are two distinct types of transposition: (i) obligatory

transposition, and (ii) optional transposition.

The following example has to be translated literally (procedure 3), but must also

be transposed (procedure 4):

In this example, the English allows no choice between the two forms, the base form

being the only one possible. Inversely, however, when translating back into French,

we have the choice between applying a caique or a transposition, because French

permits either construction.

In contrast, the two following phrases can both be transposed:

From a stylistic point of view, the base and the transposed expression do not

necessarily have the same value. Translators must, therefore, choose to carry out a

transposition if the translation thus obtained fits better into the utterance, or allows

a particular nuance of style to be retained. Indeed, the transposed form is generally

more literary in character.

A special and frequently used case of transposition is that of interchange.

Dès son lever…

As soon as he gets up…

As soon as he gets/got up…

Dès son lever…

Dès qu’il se lève…

Après qu’il sera revenu…

Après son retour…

After he comes back…

After his return…

“Il acan be re-expressed by transposing a subordinate verb“Il a annoncé son retour”. In contrast to the first expression,

A METHODOLOGY FOR TRANSLATION 89

Procedure 5: Modulation

Modulation is a variation of the form of the message, obtained by a change in the

point of view. This change can be justified when, although a literal, or even

transposed, translation results in a grammatically correct utterance, it is considered

unsuitable, unidiomatic or awkward in the TL.

As with transposition, we distinguish between free or optional modulations and

those that are fixed or obligatory. A classical example of an obligatory modulation

is the phrase, “The time when…”, which must be translated as

The type of modulation which turns a negative SL expression into a positive TL

expression is more often than not optional, even though this is closely linked with

the structure of each language, e.g.:

It is not difficult to show… Il est facile de démontrer…

The difference between fixed and free modulation is one of degree. In the case of

fixed modulation, translators with a good knowledge of both languages freely use

this method, as they will be aware of the frequency of use, the overall acceptance,

and the confirmation provided by a dictionary or grammar of the preferred

expression.

Cases of free modulation are single instances not yet fixed and sanctioned by

usage, so that the procedure must be carried out anew each time. This, however,

is not what qualifies it as optional; when carried out as it should be, the resulting

translation should correspond perfectly to the situation indicated by the SL. To

illustrate this point, it can be said that the result of a free modulation should lead

to a solution that makes the reader exclaim, “Yes, that’s exactly what you would

say”. Free modulation thus tends towards a unique solution, a solution which

rests upon an habitual train of thought and which is necessary rather than

optional. It is therefore evident that between fixed modulation and free

modulation there is but a difference of degree, and that as soon as a free

modulation is used often enough, or is felt to offer the only solution (this usually

results from the study of bilingual texts, from discussions at a bilingual

conference, or from a famous translation which claims recognition due to its

literary merit), it may become fixed. However, a free modulation does not

actually become fixed until it is referred to in dictionaries and grammars and is

regularly taught. A passage not using such a modulation would then be

considered inaccurate and rejected. In his M.A. thesis, G.Panneton, from whom

we have borrowed the term modulation, correctly anticipated the results of a

systematic application of transposition and modulation:

La transposition correspondrait en traduction à une équation du premier

degré, la modulation à une équation du second degré, chacune

transformant l’équation en identité, toutes deux effectuant la résolution

appropriée.

(Panneton 1946)

“Le moment où…”.

90 JEAN-PAUL VINAY AND JEAN DARBELNET

Procedure 6: Equivalence

We have repeatedly stressed that one and the same situation can be rendered by two

texts using completely different stylistic and structural methods. In such cases we

are dealing with the method which produces equivalent texts. The classical example

of equivalence is given by the reaction of an amateur who accidentally hits his

finger with a hammer: if he were French his cry of pain would be transcribed as

“Aïe!”, but if he were English this would be interpreted as “Ouch!”. Another striking

case of equivalences are the many onomatopoeia of animal sounds, e.g.:

cocorico cock-a-doodle-do

miaou miaow

hi-han heehaw

These simple examples illustrate a particular feature of equivalences: more often

than not they are of a syntagmatic nature, and affect the whole of the message. As

a result, most equivalences are fixed, and belong to a phraseological repertoire of

idioms, clichés, proverbs, nominal or adjectival phrases, etc. In general, proverbs

are perfect examples of equivalences, e.g.:

Il pleut à seaux/des cordes. It is raining cats and dogs.

Like a bull in a china shop. Comme un chien dans un jeu de

quilles.

Too many cooks spoil the broth. Deux patrons font chavirer la

barque.

The method of creating equivalences is also frequently applied to idioms. For

example, “To talk through one’s hat” and “as like as two peas” cannot be translated

by means of a caique. Yet this is exactly what happens amongst members of socalled

bilingual populations, who have permanent contact with two languages but

never become fully acquainted with either. It happens, nevertheless, that some of

these calques actually become accepted by the other language, especially if they

relate to a new field which is likely to become established in the country of the TL.

For example, in Canadian French the idiom “to talk through one’s hat” has acquired

the equivalent

such caiques into a perfectly organised language should not fall upon the shoulders

of translators: only writers can take such liberties, and they alone should take

credit or blame for success or failure. In translation it is advisable to use traditional

forms of expression, because the accusation of using Gallicisms, Anglicisms,

Germanisms, Hispanisms, etc. will always be present when a translator attempts to

introduce a new caique.

“parler à travers son chapeau”. But the responsibility of introducing

Procedure 7: Adaptation

With this seventh method we reach the extreme limit of translation: it is used in those cases

where the type of situation being referred to by the SL message is unknown in the TL

A METHODOLOGY FOR TRANSLATION 91

culture. In such cases translators have to create a new situation that can be considered as

being equivalent. Adaptation can, therefore, be described as a special kind of

equivalence, a situational equivalence. Let us take the example of an English father who

would think nothing of kissing his daughter on the mouth, something which is normal in

that culture but which would not be acceptable in a literal rendering into French.

Translating, “He kissed his daughter on the mouth” by

bouche”,

situation may be that of a loving father returning home and greeting his daughter after a

long journey. The French rendering would be a special kind of over translation. A more

appropriate translation would be,

course, the translator wishes to achieve a cheap effect. Adaptations are particularly

frequent in the translation of book and film titles e.g.:

Trois hommes et un couffin Three men and a baby. [film]

Le grand Meaulnes The Wanderer. [book title]

The method of adaptation is well known amongst simultaneous interpreters: there

is the story of an interpreter who, having adapted “cricket” into “Tour de France”

in a context referring to a particularly popular sport, was put on the spot when the

French delegate then thanked the speaker for having referred to such a typically

French sport. The interpreter then had to reverse the adaptation and speak of cricket

to his English client.

The refusal to make an adaptation is invariably detected within a translation

because it affects not only the syntactic structure, but also the development of ideas

and how they are represented within the paragraph. Even though translators may

produce a perfectly correct text without adaptation, the absence of adaptation may

still be noticeable by an indefinable tone, something that does not sound quite right.

This is unfortunately the impression given only too often by texts published by

international organizations, whose members, either through ignorance or because of

a mistaken insistence on literalness, demand translations which are largely based on

caiques. The result may then turn out to be pure gibberish which has no name in any

language, but which René Etiemble quite rightly referred to as

“Il embrassa sa fille sur lawould introduce into the TL an element which is not present in the SL, where the“Il serra tendrement sa fille dans ses bras”, unless, of“sabir atlantique”,

which is only partly rendered by the equivalent “Mid-Atlantic jargon”. Translations

cannot be produced simply by creating structural or metalinguistic caiques. All the

great literary translations were carried out with the implicit knowledge of the methods

described in this chapter, as Gide’s preface to his translation of

One cannot help wondering, however, if the reason the Americans refused to take the

League of Nations seriously was not because many of their documents were unmodulated

and un-adapted renderings of original French texts, just as the

atlantique”

Here, we touch upon an extremely serious problem, which, unfortunately, lack of

space prevents us from discussing further, that of intellectual, cultural, and linguistic

changes, which over time can be effected by important documents, school textbooks,

journals, film dialogues, etc., written by translators who are either unable to or who

dare not venture into the world of oblique translations. At a time when excessive

centralization and lack of respect for cultural differences are driving international

organizations into adopting working languages sui generis for writing documents

Hamlet clearly shows.“sabirhas its roots in ill-digested translations of Anglo-American originals.

92 JEAN-PAUL VINAY AND JEAN DARBELNET

which are then hastily translated by overworked and unappreciated translators, there

is good reason to be concerned about the prospect that four fifths of the world will

have to live on nothing but translations, their intellect being starved by a diet of

linguistic pap.

Application of the seven methods

These seven methods are applied to different degrees at the three planes of expression,

i.e. lexis, syntactic structure, and message, For example, borrowing may occur at

the lexical level—

“bulldozer”, “réaliser”, and “stopover” are French lexical

Table 1

(Methods in increasing order of difficulty)

Summary of the seven translation procedures

A METHODOLOGY FOR TRANSLATION 93

borrowings from English; borrowing also occurs at the level of the message, e.g.

“O.K.”

where each procedure is exemplified for each plane of expression.

It is obvious that several of these methods can be used within the same sentence,

and that some translations come under a whole complex of methods so that it is

difficult to distinguish them; e.g., the translation of “paper weight” by “pressepapiers”

is both a fixed transposition and a fixed modulation. Similarly, the

translation of PRIVATE (written on a door) by DÉFENSE D’ENTRER is at the

same time a transposition, a modulation, and an equivalence. It is a transposition

because the adjective “private” is transformed into a nominal expression; a

modulation because a statement is converted into a warning (cf. Wet paint: Prenez

garde à la peinture, though “peinture fraîche” seems to be gaining ground in Frenchspeaking

countries); and finally, it is an equivalence since it is the situation that has

been translated, rather than the actual grammatical structureand “Five o’clock”. This range of possibilities is illustrated in Table 1,